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First president of Transnistria from 1991 to 2011 In the 1980s, 's policies of and in the Soviet Union allowed political liberalisation at a regional level. This led to the creation of various informal movements all over the country, and to a rise of nationalism within most Soviet republics. In the Moldavian SSR in particular, there was a significant resurgence of pro-Romanian nationalism among ethnic Moldovans. The most prominent of these movements was the. In the spring of 1988, PFM demanded that the Soviet authorities declare the only state language, return to the use of the Latin alphabet, and recognise the shared ethnic identity of Moldovans and Romanians. The more radical factions of the Popular Front espoused extreme anti-minority, ethnocentric and chauvinist positions, calling for minority populations, particularly the Slavs (mainly Russians and Ukrainians) and, to leave or be expelled from Moldova.
On 31 August 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR adopted Moldovan as the only official language with retained only for secondary purposes, returned Moldovan to the, and declared a shared Moldovan-Romanian linguistic identity. As plans for major cultural changes in Moldova were made public, tensions rose further.
Ethnic minorities felt threatened by the prospects of removing Russian as the, which served as the medium of interethnic communication, and by the possible future reunification of Moldova and Romania, as well as the ethnocentric rhetoric of the Popular Front. The Yedinstvo (Unity) Movement, established by the Slavic population of Moldova, pressed for equal status to be given to both Russian and Moldovan. Transnistria's ethnic and linguistic composition differed significantly from most of the rest of Moldova. The share of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians was especially high and an overall majority of the population, some of them ethnic Moldovans, spoke Russian as a mother tongue.
Ethnic Moldovans accounted for less than 40% of Transnistria's population in 1989. Symbols are still used in Transnistria. The nationalist Popular Front won the first free parliamentary elections in the Moldavian SSR in the spring of 1990, and its agenda started slowly to be implemented. On 2 September 1990, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed as a Soviet republic by an assembly, the Second Congress of the Peoples' Representatives of Transnistria. Violence escalated when in October 1990 the Popular Front called for volunteers to form armed militias to stop an autonomy referendum in, which had an even higher share of ethnic minorities. In response, volunteer militias were formed in Transnistria.
In April 1990, nationalist mobs attacked ethnic Russian members of parliament, while the Moldovan police refused to intervene or restore order. In the interest of preserving a unified Moldavian SSR within the USSR and preventing the situation escalating further, then Mikhail Gorbachev, while citing the restriction of civil rights of ethnic minorities by Moldova as the cause of the dispute, declared the Transnistria proclamation to be lacking legal basis and annulled it by presidential decree on 22 December 1990. Nevertheless, no significant action was taken against Transnistria and the new authorities were slowly able to establish control of the region. Transnistria War. Main article: The Transnistria War followed armed clashes on a limited scale which broke out between Transnistrian separatists and Moldova as early as November 1990 at.
Volunteers, including, came from Russia to help the separatist side. In mid-April 1992, under the agreements on the split of the military equipment of the former Soviet Union negotiated between the former 15 republics in the previous months, Moldova created its own Defence Ministry.
According to the decree of its creation, most of the 14th Soviet Army's military equipment was to be retained by Moldova. Starting from 2 March 1992, there was concerted military action between Moldova and Transnistria.
The fighting intensified throughout early 1992. The former Soviet 14th Guards Army entered the conflict in its final stage, opening fire against Moldovan forces; approximately 700 people were killed. Moldova has since then exercised no effective control or influence on Transnistrian authorities. A ceasefire agreement, signed on 21 July 1992, has held to the present day.
Further negotiations. With and in, 18 March 2009 The (OSCE) is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement. Under OSCE auspices, on 8 May 1997, Moldovan President and Transnistrian president, signed the 'Memorandum on the principles of normalization of the relations between the Republic of Moldova and Transnistria', also known as the 'Primakov Memorandum', sustaining the establishment of legal and state relations, although the memorandum's provisions were interpreted differently by the governments of Moldova and Transnistria.
In November 2003, a counselor of Russian president, proposed a memorandum on the creation of an federal Moldovan state, with Moldova holding a majority and Transnistria being a minority part of the federation. Known as 'the ', it did not coincide with the Transnistrian position, which sought equal status between Transnistria and Moldova, but gave Transnistria veto powers over future constitutional changes; this encouraged Transnistria to sign it. Was initially supportive of the plan, but refused to sign it after internal opposition and international pressure from the OSCE and US, and after Russia had endorsed the Transnistrian demand to maintain a Russian military presence for the next 20 years as a guarantee for the intended federation. Talks were started in 2006 to deal with the problems, but without results for many years. In February 2011 the so-called ' 5 + 2 Talks' (thus named because they were carried out by Transnistria, Moldova, Ukraine, Russia and the OSCE, plus the US and the EU as external observers) were started again in.
After the annexation of the Crimea by Russia in March 2014, the head of the Transnistrian parliament asked to join the. Geography.
Main article: All UN member states consider Transnistria a legal part of the Republic of. Only the of, and have recognised Transnistria as a sovereign entity after it declared independence from Moldova in 1990 with as its declared capital. Between 1929 and 1940, Tiraspol functioned as the capital of the, an autonomous republic which existed from 1924 to 1940 within the. Although exercising no direct control over the territory of Transnistria, the Moldovan government passed the 'Law on Basic Provisions of the Special Legal Status of Localities from the Left Bank of the Dniester' on 22 July 2005, which established part of Transnistria (territory of Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic without Bender and without territories, which are under control of Moldova) as an within the Republic of Moldova. The law was passed without any prior consultation with Transnistrian authorities, who called it a provocation and have since ignored it. The Transnistrian parliament building in, fronted by a statue of PMR has a and a named the. Its legislature has 43 members elected.
The president is elected to a five-year term. Was the since the declaration of independence in 1990 for four consecutive terms. He ran for president in 2011 also, but. The majority in the Parliament of Transnistria belongs to the movement which defeated the party affiliated with Igor Smirnov in 2005 and performed even better in the and elections.
There is disagreement over whether are free and fair. The political regime has been described as one of 'super-'.
During the 2006 presidential election, the registration of opposition candidate was delayed until a few days before the vote, so that he had little time to conduct an election campaign. Some sources consider election results suspect.
In 2001, in one region it was reported that collected 103.6% of the votes. The PMR government said 'the government of Moldova launched a campaign aimed at convincing international observers not to attend' an election held on 11 December 2005 – but CIS election monitors had ignored that and had declared the ballot democratic. City Council The opposition and Power to the People movement were outlawed at the beginning of 2000 and eventually dissolved. A list published by the European Union bans travel to the EU for some members of the Transnistrian leadership. In 2007, the registration of a Social Democratic Party was allowed. This party, led by former separatist leader and member of the PMR government, allegedly favours a union with Moldova.
In September 2007, the leader of the Transnistrian Communist Party, was sentenced to a suspended sentence of 1½ years imprisonment for organising unsanctioned actions of protest. According to the, carried out by the PMR government, 97.2% of the population voted in favour of 'independence from Moldova and free association with Russia.' EU and several other countries refused to recognise the referendum results. Transnistria border customs dispute.
Main article: On 3 March 2006, introduced new customs regulations on its border with Transnistria. Ukraine declared that it would import goods from Transnistria only with documents processed by Moldovan offices as part of the implementation of the joint customs protocol agreed between Ukraine and Moldova on 30 December 2005. Transnistria and Russia termed the act an 'economic blockade'. The, the and OSCE approved the Ukrainian move, while Russia saw it as a means of political pressure. On 4 March, Transnistria responded by blocking the Moldovan and Ukrainian transport at the borders of Transnistria. The Transnistrian block was lifted after two weeks.
However, the Moldovan/Ukrainian block remains in place, and holds up progress in status settlement negotiations between the sides. In the months after the regulations, exports from Transnistria declined drastically.
Transnistria declared a 'humanitarian catastrophe' in the region, while Moldova called the declaration 'deliberate misinformation'. Cargoes of humanitarian aid were sent from Russia in response. See also: The 1992 cease-fire agreement between Moldova and Transnistria established a Russian peace-keeper presence in Transnistria and a 1,200 member Russian military contingent is present in Transnistria. Russian troops stationed in parts of Moldova except Transnistria since the time of the USSR were fully withdrawn to Russia by January 1993. In April 1995 the former Soviet 14th Guards Army became the, which by the 2010s had shrunk to two battalions and no more than 1,500 troops. On 21 October 1994, Russia and Moldova signed an agreement that committed Russia to the withdrawal of the troops in three years from the date of entry into force of the agreement; this did not come into effect, however, because the Russian did not ratify it. The (CFE) included a paragraph about the removal of Russian troops from Moldova's territory and was introduced into the text of the OSCE Summit Declaration of (1999) in which Russia had committed itself to pulling out its troops from Transnistria by the end of 2002.
However, even after 2002, the Russian parliament did not ratify the Istanbul accords. On 19 July 2004, after it finally passed through parliament President signed the Law on the ratification of the CFE Treaty in Europe, which committed Russia to remove the heavy armaments limited by this Treaty. During 2000–2001, although the CFE Treaty was not fully ratified, to comply with it, Moscow withdrew 125 pieces of Treaty Limited Equipment (TLE) and 60 railway wagons containing ammunition from the Transnistrian region of Moldova. In 2002, Russia withdrew three trainloads (118 railway wagons) of military equipment and two (43 wagons) of ammunition from the Transnistrian region of Moldova, and in 2003, 11 rail convoys transporting military equipment and 31 transporting ammunition. According to the Mission to Moldova, of a total of 42,000 tons of ammunition stored in Transnistria, 1,153 tons (3%) was transported back to Russia in 2001, 2,405 tons (6%) in 2002 and 16,573 tons (39%) in 2003. , the, stated in his speech during the 12th OSCE Ministerial Council Meeting in on 6–7 December 2004 that 'The presence of Russian troops on the territory of the Republic of Moldova is against the political will of Moldovan constitutional authorities and defies the unanimously recognized international norms and principles, being qualified by Moldovan authorities as a foreign military occupation illegally deployed on the territory of the state'. As of 2007 however, Russia insists that it has already fulfilled those obligations.
It states the remaining troops are serving as peacekeepers authorised under the 1992 ceasefire, are not in violation of the Istanbul accords and will remain until the conflict is fully resolved. On the other hand, Moldova believes that fewer than 500 soldiers are authorised pursuant to the ceasefire and, in 2015, began to arrest and deport Russian soldiers who are part of the excess forces and attempt to use Moldovan airports.
PMR official statistics show that 91 per cent of the Transnistrian population adhere to, with 4 per cent adhering to. Roman Catholics are mainly located in Northern Transnistria, where a notable minority is living.
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Transnistria's government has supported the restoration and construction of new orthodox churches. It affirms that the republic has and states that 114 religious beliefs and congregations are officially registered. However, as recently as 2005, registration hurdles were met with by some religious groups, notably the. In 2007, the US-based denounced the persecution of in Transnistria. Economy Transnistria has a.
Following a large scale process in the late 90s, most of the companies in Transnistria are now privately owned. The economy is based on a mix of (steel production), electricity production, and (textile production), which together account for about 80% of the total industrial output.
Transnistria's central bank, the Transnistrian Republican Bank Transnistria has its own central bank, the, which issues Transnistrian currency, the. It is convertible at a freely floating exchange rate but only in Transnistria.
Transnistria's economy is frequently described as dependent on and, with some labelling it a. These allegations are denied by the Transnistrian government, and sometimes downplayed by the officials of Russia and Ukraine. Economic history After World War II, Transnistria was heavily industrialised, to the point that, in 1990, it was responsible for 40% of Moldova's GDP and 90% of its electricity, although it accounted for only 17% of Moldova's population. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Transnistria wanted to return to a 'Brezhnev-style '. However, several years later, it decided to head toward a. Capital of Transnistria Macroeconomics According to the government of Transnistria, the 2007 GDP was 6789 mln Transnistrian roubles (appx US$799 million) and the GDP per capita was about US$1,500.
The GDP increased by 11.1% and inflation rate was 19.3% with the GDP per capita now being $2,140, higher than Moldova's GDP per capita which is $2,040. Transnistria's government budget for 2007 was US$246 million, with an estimated deficit of about US$100 million which the government planned to cover with income from privatisations. Budget for 2008 is US$331 million, with an estimated deficit of about US$80 million. In 2004, Transnistria had debts of US$1.2 billion (two-thirds of which are with Russia) which was per capita about six times higher than in Moldova (without Transnistria). In March 2007 the debt to for the acquisition of natural gas has increased to US$1.3 billion.
On 22 March 2007 Gazprom sold Transnistria's gas debt to the Russian businessman, who controls, the largest enterprise in Transnistria. Transnistria's president Igor Smirnov has announced that Transnistria will not pay its gas debt because 'Transnistria has no legal debt to Gazprom'. In November 2007, the total debt of Transnistria's public sector was up to US$1.64 billion. According to a 2007 interview with, the then-speaker of the, Transnistria is in a difficult economic situation. Despite a 30% tax increase in 2007, the pension fund is still lacking money and emergency measures must be taken. However, Shevchuk mentioned that the situation is not hopeless and it cannot be considered a crisis, as a crisis means three-month delays in payment of pensions and salaries. External trade In 2006, the reported exports of US$422.0 million and imports of US$738.4 million.
Compared to a year prior, export decreased 27.2% and import decreased 13.7%. The trade deficit reached US$316.3 million. Over 50% of the export went to the, mainly to Russia, but also to Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova (which Transnistrian authorities consider foreign). Main non-CIS markets for the Transnistrian goods were Italy, Egypt, Greece, Romania, and Germany. The CIS accounted for over 60% of the imports, while the share of the EU was about 23%. The main imports were non-precious metals, food products, and electricity. After Moldova signed the Association Agreement with the EU in 2014, Transnistria—being de jure part of Moldova—enjoyed the tariff-free exports to the EU.
As a result, in 2015, 27% of Transnistria's US$189 million exports went to the EU, while exports to Russia went down to 7.7%. This shift towards the EU market continued to grow in 2016. Economic sectors The leading industry is steel, due to the (part of the Russian holding) in, which accounts for about 60% of the budget revenue of Transnistria.
The largest company in the textile industry is, which claims to be the second largest textile company in Europe. The energy sector is dominated by Russian companies. The largest power company which is in and owned by, and the gas transmission and distribution company is probably controlled by, although Gazprom has not confirmed the ownership officially. The banking sector of Transnistria consists of 8 commercial banks, including. The oldest alcohol producer, located in Tiraspol, produces and exports brandy, wines and vodka. Human rights. Main article: The human rights record of Transnistria has been criticised by several governments and international organisations.
The 2007 report, published by the U.S.-based, described Transnistria as a 'non-free' territory, having an equally bad situation in both political rights and civil liberties. According to the report referring to the year 2006: The right of citizens to change their government was restricted. Authorities reportedly continued to use torture and arbitrary arrest and detention. In Transnistria authorities limited freedom of speech and of the press.Authorities usually did not permit free assembly. In the separatist region of Transnistria the authorities continued to deny registration and harassed a number of minority religious groups. The separatist region remained a significant source and transit area for trafficking in persons. Homosexuality was illegal, and gays and lesbians were subject to governmental and societal discrimination.
See also: Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the Russian 14th Army left 40,000 tonnes of weaponry and ammunition in Transnistria. In later years there were concerns that the Transnistrian authorities would try to sell these stocks internationally, and intense pressure was applied to have these removed by the. In 2000 and 2001, the Russian Federation withdrew by rail, 141 self-propelled artillery pieces and other armoured vehicles and destroyed locally, 108 and 139 other pieces of military equipment limited by the (CFE). During 2002 and 2003 Russian military officials destroyed a further 51 armoured vehicles, all of which were types not limited by the CFE Treaty. The OSCE also observed and verified the withdrawal of 48 trains with military equipment and ammunition in 2003. However, no further withdrawal activities have taken place since March 2004 and a further 20,000 tons of ammunition, as well as some remaining military equipment are still to be removed.
In the autumn of 2006, the Transnistrian leadership agreed to let an OSCE inspectorate examine the munitions and further access was agreed moving forward. Recent weapons inspections were permitted by Transnistria and conducted by the OSCE. The onus of responsibility rests on the Russian Federation to remove the rest of the supplies. Transnistrian authorities declared that they are not involved in the manufacture or export of weapons.
OSCE and European Union officials stated in 2005 that there is no evidence that Transnistria 'has ever trafficked arms or nuclear material' and much of the alarm is due to the Moldovan government's attempts to pressure Transnistria. In 2007, foreign experts working on behalf of the United Nations said that the historically low levels of transparency and continued denial of full investigations to international monitors have reinforced negative perceptions of the Transnistrian government, although recent co-operation by Transnistrian authorities may have reflected a shift in the attitude of Transnistria. Their report stated that the evidence for the illicit production and into and from Transnistria, has in the past been exaggerated, although the trafficking of light weapons is likely to have occurred before 2001 (the last year when export data showed US$900,000 worth of 'weapons, munitions, their parts and accessories' exported from Transnistria).
The report also states that the same holds true for the production of such weapons, which is likely to have been carried out in the 1990s, primarily to equip Transnistrian forces. The OSCE mission spokesman Claus Neukirch spoke about this situation: 'There is often talk about sale of armaments from Transnistria, but there is no convincing evidence.' In 2010, Viktor Kryzhanovskyi, 's special envoy on Transnistria, stated that there was no ongoing or through the Transnistrian section of the Ukrainian-Moldovan border at the time. See also. Transnistriaat Wikipedia's. from Wiktionary. from Wikimedia Commons.
from Wikinews. from Wikiquote. from Wikisource. from Wikibooks. from Wikivoyage.
from Wikiversity.,., Jos Boonstra, February 2007. Matsuzato, Kimitaka: 'Canonization, Obedience, and Defiance: Strategies for Survival of the Orthodox Communities in Transnistria, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia' in the., Transnistria.review. (in Russian). (in English) (in Russian). (in English) (in Russian). (in English) (in Russian). (in English) (in Russian) (in Romanian).
(in Russian). (in Russian). (in Russian).